If Alexander was nicknamed Megas Alexandros – Alexander the Great – it was thanks to his bravery in battle, his military career, his gigantic empire, and undoubtedly the most exhilarating life ever bequeathed to the history of humanity. No one could resist him: men, women, Macedonians, Greeks, Persians, Indians, all bowed before him. Having been interested in Alexander's life for several years, reading and writing about him, a question kept troubling me: who, if not death itself, defeated Alexander? The intrepid Macedonian never lost a battle, and even when he returned wounded, agonizing at the gates of the underworld, it was always as a victor!
Reexamining his epic, I realized that there was only one man who truly resisted him. Darius the Great King? No! His close friends like Hephaestion or Ptolemy? Neither! It was a nearly unknown man who crossed Alexander's life like a meteor through the atmosphere. Though he bent before him, he never broke. His name: Memnon of Rhodes. What can we say about this Greek mercenary who fought for Persia against Philip, Alexander's father, and then Alexander himself with some success before a premature death ended his plans for reconquest? The relationship between the two men was strong to the point that Alexander would bind himself to the family of his former enemy.
From Mercenary to Obligate:
Before becoming one of Alexander's main opponents, Memnon spent his childhood in the shadow of his older brother, Mentor. Born around 380 BC, Memnon received a Greek education—due to the dominant culture on the island—and a military one—due to Rhodes' strategic and commercial position. Enjoying a principle of autonomy but closely watched by the Persian administration, the island "produced" mercenaries who sold their skills to the Persians.
Thus, Memnon and his brother were employed by Artabazus, satrap of the Hellespont and Phrygia, in revolt against the great king Artaxerxes III. Confident, Artabazus decided to tie his destiny with the two Greeks by marrying their youngest sister, while Barsine, his daughter, married Mentor. The two brothers were to lead the satrap’s troops to victory but were quickly overwhelmed by an infinitely more numerous and powerful enemy in 354. Despite their recognized skills, the two brothers were forced to flee. Mentor fled to Egypt while Memnon joined Artabazus and Barsine, who found refuge in Pella, Macedonia, with Philip II, Alexander’s father!
They stayed in Macedonia for almost ten years, where Memnon, one can imagine, met the young Alexander while he was being trained by his tutors Leonidas and especially Aristotle. We like to imagine the experienced Greek mercenary answering the curious young Philip's son's questions, and it’s touching, albeit tragic, to picture Memnon and Alexander talking and perhaps even playing together. A poignant scene, as it would be the same Memnon who would face his former charge ten years later when Alexander crossed the Hellespont to embark on the greatest conquest of all time.
When Alexander landed on the beach of Abydos in 334 – he was then 22 – he faced many problems. His youth and boldness did not protect him from a cunning enemy who, moreover, knew him very well! Indeed, Darius III, the Great King, had decided to appoint Memnon as the supreme commander of his armies to crush the Macedonian invader. Memnon of Rhodes had finally returned home because his elder brother Mentor, having entered the service of the Great King, had negotiated the return of his family. Mentor had since died, and Memnon had married Barsine, his widow.
Prudent and aware of the immense potential of the Macedonian phalanxes and cavalry, the Rhodian opted for a scorched-earth tactic, fleeing and burning all the country's food resources before the enemy. Well-informed, Memnon knew that the impatient Alexander had left everything behind and had only a limited margin of maneuver: he counted on enriching and feeding himself on his conquests!
"What impudence!" was heard from the Persian satraps; "He will be defeated by arms!"
Memnon, facing a "revolt" – he was far from the Great King – had to admit defeat and resolved to fight. As a strategist, he occupied the eastern bank of a river, the Granicus. There, he would await Alexander and his army! There, he had to defeat his former friend on behalf of the Persians. To hell with feelings, he was a mercenary! He was paid to fight, not to be sentimental!
Alexander was informed of the Persian position. He was only more motivated by Memnon’s presence at the head of his enemies. Resentment? He surely had some, and the future would prove it.
"So here is Memnon, a great man!" he said ironically. "He himself came to my father seeking refuge from the Persians. And now? By Zeus! He is at the head of his former oppressors and the husband of his brother’s widow, who allowed him to return home!"
The Granicus was a terrible Persian defeat, as it opened the gates of Asia Minor to Alexander. Memnon, however, managed to escape and with the remnants of his army plotted a counterattack. Unable to gather enough men, he retreated and ended up cornered in Halicarnassus, then in the fortress of the city when it fell into the hands of the invincible Macedonian.
The Resister:
Realizing that he could do nothing against the furious advance of the Macedonian army in Asia, Memnon took refuge behind the thick walls of the coastal city of Halicarnassus. Feeling safe after the city authorities had assured him that Halicarnassus would not capitulate, Memnon prepared an impossible riposte. As a general, he reorganized the defenses, had the city walls reinforced, modernized the citadel overlooking the sea, and roused the city’s defenders.
"Nothing is good with Alexander! He will annihilate your city and you with it!"
His speeches were approved by the cries of soldiers who believed in victory.
"The Great King, our master, is preparing an army that will destroy the Macedonians, and then you will have gained the glory of having resisted the most terrible scourge of this world!"
Nothing was less certain. Alexander was at the city gates, and Memnon had no news from the Great King, who was comfortably seated on his throne in Persepolis. For the latter, Alexander was still too far away, and his army too small to be of concern. It was said that within a few weeks, Darius III could gather hundreds of thousands of soldiers from the four corners of his vast empire.
Memnon had to make do. He often thought of his wife Barsine and his daughter, fleeing somewhere in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) with other Persian generals’ wives. Inwardly worried, he showed nothing, being a good general to give confidence to his soldiers. Prudently, he ordered the construction of a relief fleet just in case...
Alexander launched the assault! It was far too soon, as the city was far from being able to repel the terrible Macedonian phalangists. A breach was made in the wall through which the enemy army poured in like ants into a burrow! The poorly trained city guard was destroyed, and Memnon had to retreat to the citadel with the remaining Persian and Greek contingents. Cursing Alexander, Memnon, from atop a citadel tower, turned towards the sea – his only escape route – and taking the gods as witnesses, swore to counterattack.
The citadel of Halicarnassus held out. The siege dragged on too long for the Macedonian conqueror. Alexander decided to abandon his relentless pursuit against Memnon’s remaining forces, who, from the high towers of the citadel, spent his days scanning the horizon, hoping to see the long-awaited reinforcements. Alexander decided to leave a small garrison of soldiers under the orders of Queen Ada, the deposed queen of Halicarnassus shortly before the conflict between her kingdom and Alexander. She had helped the young Macedonian, pledging allegiance to his sovereignty if he restored her to the throne.
Memnon watched as the Macedonian army packed up and left for further conquests. The Greek saw this as the long-awaited moment... to flee the citadel. Under the cover of night, he deceived his enemies by boarding with the remaining troops and set sail. After a few days of navigation, he encountered other Persian ships – the latter were then masters of the seas – and regained hope. His counterattack would finally take shape.
"No need to join the front! We must cut Alexander off from his base: Greece! Our fleet is powerful enough to neutralize any reinforcements crossing the Hellespont. Athens is just waiting for a sign of weakness to revolt and strike against Macedonia. Let the division of the Greek cities destroy Alexander’s ambitions! I will personally lead our troops in the Aegean Sea where we will subdue all the islands."
Memnon, intelligently, took advantage of the weakness of the Macedonian navy to take control of the seas. Within less than a year, the islands of the Aegean Sea all fell into his hands.
Alexander closely followed Memnon’s maneuvers, enraged at not having been able to eliminate his enemy at the Granicus and Halicarnassus. He himself was on the eve of a terrible battle against Darius, and Memnon’s success undermined the morale of the troops who felt trapped, “locked” in Asia, with no means of return.
It was written that Alexander would never be defeated by a man. In 333, he was only at the beginning of his glory. Thus, when he learned that Memnon had succumbed to an illness on the island of Mytilene, Alexander understood that henceforth nothing and no one would be able to stop him. The Battle of Issus, immortalized by the famous mosaic of Pompeii, affirmed the power of a 23-year-old man already being compared to a god. Victor over Darius and many other kings, Alexander would betray a widespread ancient custom: he would never claim the wife of the vanquished... yet in the same year 333, he married his first wife: Barsine, the widow of Memnon, the one who defied Alexander the Great.
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