Lycurgus and the Laws of Sparta: The Legislator Who Shaped an Immortal City

Lycurgus and the Laws of Sparta: The Legislator Who Shaped an Immortal City

War, the 300, Leonidas, the Peloponnesian War… these are the images that come to mind when we think of Sparta. Under the unyielding skies of Laconia, Sparta seemed hewn from the very stone of its mountains: austere, resolute, indomitable. But this city, admired for its legendary discipline and feared for its military might, was not always a model of rigor. At the origin of this transformation stands a mysterious figure: Lycurgus. Let us delve into the story of this architect of Spartan order.

Lycurgus, according to ancient accounts, lived in the 9th or 8th century BC. But who was he? Was he a mere regent, a wise traveler, or a symbolic construct? The texts oscillate between reality and legend. Herodotus portrays him as a legislator inspired by his travels, while Plutarch, in his Life of Lycurgus, attributes to him an almost divine wisdom. What is certain is that he appeared in a Sparta torn by internal conflicts. Rivalries between clans, inequality of wealth, and political instability threatened the very existence of the city. Lycurgus, with a radical vision, undertook to transform this fragmented society into a unified community where the collective interest would prevail over individual ambitions. Before beginning, he is said to have consulted the oracle of Delphi, which blessed him: Lycurgus, beloved of the gods, your city will prosper as long as your laws remain intact. Reassured, he took charge of reorganizing Sparta.

But first, let us imagine the man.

He was a being with a piercing gaze, marked by a cold determination. His features, the accounts say, reflected the rigor of his mind: a square jaw, an austere face, short-cropped black hair in the Spartan tradition. Lycurgus was the son of one of the two royal lines of Sparta, the Eurypontids, and served as regent after the death of his brother, King Polydectes. His royal status did not prevent him from leading a life of exemplary austerity, in accordance with the principles he later imposed on his fellow citizens. Yet, the story of his life remains hazy, as if shrouded in a veil of legends. Plutarch reports that after his brother's death, Lycurgus voluntarily ceded the throne to his brother's young son. This act made him a respected man, but he also had to face accusations and plots. According to some accounts, even members of his own family attempted to assassinate him. To escape these tensions, Lycurgus left Sparta and embarked on a long journey that would transform his worldview. He is said to have traveled to Crete, where he studied the institutions of the Minyans, then to Ionia, where he was fascinated by the poetry of Homer. According to Plutarch, he also visited Egypt, where he took an interest in the organization of castes, and perhaps even Libya and India. Each stage of this journey reinforced a conviction: Sparta must become a city where order and discipline would surpass all individual ambitions. His return to Sparta marked the beginning of his legendary work. Dressed in a simple tunic, he walked the streets, sharing his vision of a city where the law would be sovereign. It is said that he used his eloquence to convince, but also his authority to impose the first measures. The portrait of Lycurgus painted by ancient authors is that of a man both pragmatic and visionary, ready to sacrifice his popularity for the common good. He was also endowed with great resilience: A man of steel in a city of stone, one might say today.

Lycurgus devised an innovative political system, the Great Rhetra, which served as both a guide and a sacred constitution for Sparta. The organization rested on a subtle balance of powers. At the top, two kings from the Agiad and Eurypontid dynasties shared authority. This diarchy, unique in the Greek world, limited abuses by distributing power. They were supported by the Gerousia, a council of 28 elders, and the Assembly of citizens (the Apella), where every free man could vote. Finally, five ephors elected annually exercised a decisive counter-power, even overseeing the kings. This ingenious system allowed Sparta to maintain a rare stability; where other cities wavered between tyranny and democracy, Sparta remained steadfast.

One of the foundations of Lycurgus' vision was equality among Spartan citizens, which he imposed through drastic measures. He redistributed the land, giving each family an equal parcel. To prevent the accumulation of wealth, he abolished gold and silver, replacing them with iron currency: heavy, cumbersome, and lacking commercial value outside Sparta. This material austerity extended to all aspects of Spartan life. Citizens shared communal meals in the syssitia, where the food was simple and frugal. Lycurgus himself is said to have set the example: Let my table be that of all, he said, sacrificing his own wealth for the common good.

However, this equality was built on cruel exploitation. The helots, serfs of Messenian origin, worked the land to allow free citizens to dedicate themselves to war. Regularly humiliated and repressed, they lived in constant terror of the krypteia, secret expeditions where Spartans eliminated the most recalcitrant.

The educational system instituted by Lycurgus, the Agoge, remains one of Sparta's most famous innovations. Designed to forge citizen-soldiers, it embodied the Spartan ideal of discipline and devotion. From the age of seven, boys left their families to join this collective school. Their training, brutal, aimed to toughen their bodies and minds: a single cloak to brave the winter, insufficient meals to learn survival, and severe punishments to make them implacable. One day, Plutarch recounts, a boy stole a fox cub to feed himself. Rather than release the animal when discovered, he hid it under his cloak until it bit him to death. This heroic silence illustrated the Spartan spirit: endure suffering to protect the city's honor.

Girls, though spared from the Agoge, also received demanding physical education. They trained in running and discus throwing, for Lycurgus believed that strong mothers gave birth to powerful warriors.

Thanks to Lycurgus' reforms, Sparta became an unmatched military machine. Every citizen was a soldier; war was not an obligation but a way of life. The key to Spartan power lay in the hoplite phalanx. This compact formation, where each soldier protected his neighbor with his shield, embodied the essence of Spartan solidarity. During the Persian Wars, Sparta distinguished itself through its courage. At Thermopylae, the 300 Spartans led by Leonidas held off Xerxes' Persian army, embodying Lycurgus' legacy: better to die than to yield.

Despite its successes, the Spartan model had its limits. The domination of the helots and the demand for military perfection weighed heavily on the city. The population of free citizens gradually decreased, weakened by incessant wars and insufficient natalist policies. Yet, Lycurgus' influence endured through the ages. Philosophers and thinkers, from Plato to Rousseau, found inspiration in his reforms. The Spartan vision, where discipline and equality blended with extreme austerity, remains a fascinating and terrifying utopia.

One day, Lycurgus left Sparta, entrusting his work to his fellow citizens, and disappeared forever. He left behind a city shaped by discipline and etched in history, eternal like the mountains that surround it.